Sunday 22 April 2018
Wednesday 12 July 2017
The World’s Cutest Amphibian:Desert Rain Frog
This adorable amphibian is popular for its unusual squeaking sound when alarmed, as well as its toy-like appearance. Currently, the species is threatened by habitat loss.
Friday 7 July 2017
DC motor dynamo | How to make a Power Generator - A easy science projec...
“If
you do it right,
it will last
forever.”
–Massimo Vignelli
How To Make a Remote Control Car - Very Simple
“You don’t think your way
to creative work.
You work your way
to creative thinking.”
–George Nelson
Life of Napoleon
To be frank no actual personal was identified to be the first napoleon.So we take it from here.
Prince Louis Napoleon was forty when he won the election for the French Presidency in 1848, a small, reserved, enigmatic man with chestnut hair, brown beard and a pointed moustache. Polling well over 5 million votes, he won one of the most remarkable victories in French history, though he had never held public office or distinguished himself in any worthwhile capacity. The nostalgic vote which carried him to power looked back to the greatness of France under his uncle, Napoleon I, whose name he carried and whose heir he claimed to be.
Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, born in Paris in 1808, was both the nephew of Napoleon I and the grandson of the Empress Josephine. His father, who was king of Holland at the time (and who had doubts about whether the boy was really his), was Napoleon I's brother Louis. His mother was Hortense de Beauharnais, Josephine's daughter by her first husband.
Louis Napoleon last saw the first Napoleon as a boy of seven and grew up in exile in Switzerland and Germany, imbibing from his mother a profound admiration for his uncle's genius and a romantic longing for France, his lost homeland. The death in Vienna in 1832, at the age of twenty-one, of Napoleon I's only son, the Duke of Reichstadt, allowed Louis Napoleon to regard himself as the true Bonaparte heir and he made vain attempts to bring off coups in France in 1836 and in 1840.
Louis-Napoléon’s childhood and youth were spent largely in exile. His mother, like all the Bonapartes, was banished from France in 1815 after the fall of Napoleon I. Eventually, she found a new home in Switzerland, where, in 1817, she bought the castle of Arenenberg. Of romantic disposition herself, she inspired young Louis-Napoléon with a longing for his lost fatherland, as well as with enthusiastic admiration of the genius of Napoleon I. After attending a grammar school at Augsburg, Ger. (1821–23), her “sweet stubborn boy” was taught by private tutors.
How did Napoleon came to power?
Napoleon came into power in France due to military success in Italy, as well as his attack on the French Revolutionary government while it was under assault by a Parisian mob. On November 9th and 10th, 1799, he was put into power with two other consuls, Sieyes and Ducos.
Claim to the throne
After
the death in 1832 of his cousin the Duke of Reichstadt (Napoleon I’s
only son), Louis-Napoléon considered himself his family’s claimant to
the French throne. To be better prepared for his task, he completed his
military training and pursued his studies of economic and social
problems. Soon after, he felt ready to publish his own writings on
political and military subjects.
In his pamphlet “Rêveries politiques”
(1832), he asserted that only an emperor could give France both glory
and liberty. He thus wanted to make his name known, propagate
his ideas, and recruit adherents. Convinced that as Napoleon’s nephew
he would be popular with the French army, he vainly tried, on Oct. 30,
1836, to win over the Strasbourg garrison for a coup d’état. King Louis-Philippe exiled him to the United States, from which he was recalled early in 1837 by his mother’s last illness. Expelled from Switzerland in 1838, he settled in England.
In his pamphlet “Rêveries politiques”
(1832), he asserted that only an emperor could give France both glory
and liberty. He thus wanted to make his name known, propagate
his ideas, and recruit adherents. Convinced that as Napoleon’s nephew
he would be popular with the French army, he vainly tried, on Oct. 30,
1836, to win over the Strasbourg garrison for a coup d’état. King Louis-Philippe exiled him to the United States, from which he was recalled early in 1837 by his mother’s last illness. Expelled from Switzerland in 1838, he settled in England.
The French Academy.
The origins of the academy were in a coterie of literary men who met informally in Paris in the early 1630s to discuss rhetoric and criticism. Recognized by Cardinal Richelieu, the academy received the royal letters patent in 1635 (registered by the Parlement of Paris in 1637). Its aims included chiefly the governance of French literary effort, grammar, orthography, and rhetoric. The membership was soon fixed at 40 (called often, because of their former motto, "the forty immortals" ) and was established as self-perpetuating, with a veto of elections reserved to the official protecteur (or patron), later to the state. The first notable act of the society was the criticism of the Cid of Pierre Corneille.
After Richelieu's death (1642) the patronate went (1643) to Pierre Séguier, the chancellor; on his death (1672), King Louis XIV assumed the position of protecteur, which remained ever after a prerogative of the head of the French state. The suppression of the academies in 1793 ended the French Academy; it reappeared in the second class of Napoleon's Institut (1803), and the old name and organization were "restored" in the first division of the Institut of 1816.
The academy has often been accused of literary conservatism, owing to the failure of certain writers to attain membership; the most prominent of these are perhaps Molière, Marquis de La Rochefoucauld, Duc de Saint-Simon, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Honoré de Balzac, Gustave Flaubert, Stendhal, Émile Zola, and Marcel Proust. But not all omissions from the academy roster are attributable to literary criteria, for personal respectability and loyalty to the existing state have always been conditions of membership. The membership of the academy has traditionally included eminent Frenchmen outside the field of literature; some of its members come from France's senior clergy to mark the role of Roman Catholicism in French culture. Today the academy's membership includes women and people of other nationalities who write in French.
Functions
The work of
the French Academy has chiefly consisted of the preparation and revision
of a dictionary (1st ed. 1694, 9th ed. 1992–) and of a grammar. The
very conservative attitude of these books toward orthography, new words,
and grammatical development has led to much criticism. The academy,
however, has never claimed to legislate but simply to record forms;
legislation on orthography and grammar was made a function of the
minister of public instruction during the Third Republic. The awarding
of literary prizes has also been an important function of the French
Academy, and in the 19th cent. its nonpartisanship encouraged the
general recognition of the academy as a suitable trustee for the
distribution of grants and prizes for courage and civic virtue.
How To Make a Car - Powered Car - Very Simple
“We are kept keen on the grindstone of pain and necessity.”
― H.G. Wells, The Time Machine
― H.G. Wells, The Time Machine
2 Simple crazy cars - [ VERY SIMPLE ]
“The world is moving so fast these days
that the man who says it can't be done
is generally interrupted
by someone
doing it.”
― Elbert Hubbard
How to Make a Car / Tank - Very Easy
"Thomas Edison.
"To invent,
you need a good imagination
and a pile of
junk." ...
Thursday 6 July 2017
How To Make a Mini Car At Home - Very Simple
“
To invent, you need a good imagination
and a pile of junk.
”
― Thomas A. Edison
Wednesday 5 July 2017
Stop Eating Mainly Processed Foods
Do your body a favor, and try to eat "clean" more often, including foods high in fiber (which are linked to greater longevity) and other ingredients you purchase and prepare yourself. If you’re short on time (and who isn’t?), cook ahead in big batches, or splurge on ready-made salads and other fresh or frozen vegetables, while watching the sodium and sugar contents on the label.
Stop Smoking
If you’re a smoker, you know how hard quitting
can be, but here’s some inspiration: The NIH says tobacco use remains
the most preventable cause of death. Some estimates suggest smoking can rob you of a decade of life.
Whether you quit cold-turkey or phase out your habit, your body is surprisingly forgiving; blood pressure and circulation improve soon after quitting, and your risk of getting cancer decreases every year thereafter. Keep in mind that your family members will also benefit from your staying tobacco-free because they'll no longer be exposed to dangerous second-hand smoke. You'll look younger, too.
Whether you quit cold-turkey or phase out your habit, your body is surprisingly forgiving; blood pressure and circulation improve soon after quitting, and your risk of getting cancer decreases every year thereafter. Keep in mind that your family members will also benefit from your staying tobacco-free because they'll no longer be exposed to dangerous second-hand smoke. You'll look younger, too.
Stop Sitting Still
If you don’t feel you have time to exercise, consider this: You may not need to hit the global minimum recommendations of 30 minutes a day, five or more times per week, to extend your life. A study published in 2011 in The Lancet, examining the activity habits of more than 416,000 men and women in Taiwan, found that getting just 15 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise
each day helped subjects live three extra years. The longevity boost
went up to four years of longer life for people achieving the threshold
of 30 minutes a day. The results held true even for those with health
problems like cardiovascular disease and for overweight people who
didn’t lose any pounds through their activity.
Brisk walking was one of the "moderate intensity" exercises cited in the Taiwanese research. You might have to make a conscious effort to work it into your daily routine, but 15 minutes of activity for an extra three years of life sounds like a longevity bargain.
Brisk walking was one of the "moderate intensity" exercises cited in the Taiwanese research. You might have to make a conscious effort to work it into your daily routine, but 15 minutes of activity for an extra three years of life sounds like a longevity bargain.
Stop Holding a Grudge
Anger can be a tough emotion to release,
especially if you feel justified in your outrage. Maybe the best
question to ask yourself is this is it worth the cortisol? Levels of
this stress hormone go up when you’re stressed or angry, with negative
effects on your heart, metabolism, and immune system. High cortisol has
been associated with greater mortality in a number of studies.
Stop Keeping to Yourself
Staying social
can be a good longevity booster, mostly by helping you manage stress
and by strengthening your immune system. Good relationships keep you
strong, while bad relationships can leave you in a negative frame of
mind, and put you at risk of depression and even heart attacks.
Staying connected can be a tough one if you are feeling down, have lost someone close to you, or live far away from extended family and friends. There are ways to re-engage and meet new people even if you are in a new city, including volunteering and reaching out to others with similar interests through networks like business groups and book clubs.
Staying connected can be a tough one if you are feeling down, have lost someone close to you, or live far away from extended family and friends. There are ways to re-engage and meet new people even if you are in a new city, including volunteering and reaching out to others with similar interests through networks like business groups and book clubs.
Stop Thinking That Only Big Changes Count
Sweeping, radical changes in lifestyle might be
inspiring, but they can also be too daunting and therefore,
short-lived for ordinary mortals. The next time you resolve to eat
healthier or exercise more, try aiming low! Try choosing just one small
change at a time, like getting up 10 minutes earlier in the morning to
fix yourself a healthy lunch for work, instead of a major life makeover.
Like the exercise advice above shows, even short spurts of activity
each day can reap big benefits for your lifespan.
Small shifts can fly under your own radar, adding up to big benefits over time without causing stress in your busy world. Consistency is more important than a short-term, grand gesture. Besides, looking at what’s already working in your day-to-day routine can help you feel energized and motivated to tweak a little more in a healthy direction.
Small shifts can fly under your own radar, adding up to big benefits over time without causing stress in your busy world. Consistency is more important than a short-term, grand gesture. Besides, looking at what’s already working in your day-to-day routine can help you feel energized and motivated to tweak a little more in a healthy direction.
Stop Letting Fear (or Denial) Keep You From Being Healthy
Of all the personality traits that could affect
your longevity, conscientiousness consistently ranks as an important
one, perhaps the most important one. Why? Well, conscientious people
tend to engage in healthy behaviors like eating well, exercising, and
following their doctors’ advice, while avoiding risky behaviors like
smoking and driving too fast.
However, don’t confuse being conscientious or diligent with being neurotic about your health, a trait that may be linked to negative emotions like anxiety, anger, and depression. A simplified example might be that a neurotic person worries he might have cancer, and fearing the worst, doesn’t go to his doctor. By contrast, a conscientious person may still worry, but gets screened or tested, learns about the disease, and gets treated in a timely fashion.
However, don’t confuse being conscientious or diligent with being neurotic about your health, a trait that may be linked to negative emotions like anxiety, anger, and depression. A simplified example might be that a neurotic person worries he might have cancer, and fearing the worst, doesn’t go to his doctor. By contrast, a conscientious person may still worry, but gets screened or tested, learns about the disease, and gets treated in a timely fashion.
Stop Cheating Your Night's Sleep
The amount of sleep you get can affect your lifespan, and not just because a sleepy driver is at risk of a car accident. In epidemiological studies,
sleeping too little (fewer than six hours) or substantially more (over
nine hours) has been shown to put people at greater risk of death.
Quality of life is also on the line: A good night’s sleep can help you ward off stress, depression, and heart disease.
You can learn to fall asleep more quickly and take measures that can help, like keeping your bedroom dark and distraction-free, and having the temperature on the cool side. Meditation exercises can set the stage for a good night’s sleep, and an inexpensive noise machine can help with relaxing sounds. If you’re still having trouble getting to sleep, or staying asleep, see your health provider for further help.
You can learn to fall asleep more quickly and take measures that can help, like keeping your bedroom dark and distraction-free, and having the temperature on the cool side. Meditation exercises can set the stage for a good night’s sleep, and an inexpensive noise machine can help with relaxing sounds. If you’re still having trouble getting to sleep, or staying asleep, see your health provider for further help.
Stop Stressing
Like anger, stress takes its toll on your body
and may actually shorten your life. By trying to reduce stress, you can
improve your health in the long-term, and quality of life in the meantime.
Journaling or writing in a diary, meditating (a practice with multiple longevity benefits), and learning to relax are wonderful ways to de-stress. Working in just a few minutes of meditation a day even at your desk can give your brain the mini-vacation from anxiety and tension it needs.
Journaling or writing in a diary, meditating (a practice with multiple longevity benefits), and learning to relax are wonderful ways to de-stress. Working in just a few minutes of meditation a day even at your desk can give your brain the mini-vacation from anxiety and tension it needs.
Stop Relying on or Blaming Your Genes
Having parents, grandparents, or other family members live into their nineties and beyond might suggest that you will too, but don’t rely too heavily on that family history. Studies conducted on twins in Scandinavia suggest that genetics may be responsible for only about a third of your longevity potential.This is, of course, good news for those of us without that exceptional ancestry. Environmental and lifestyle factors like diet, how much exercise you get (what researchers call modifiable risk factors), whether you’re exposed to workplace toxins, how much stress you experience, how conscientious you are about medical tests and screenings, and even the strength of your social relationships all play a huge role in how fast you age and how long you might live. Besides, why focus on the genetics you can’t control, when the factors you can will benefit from your attention?
List of dialects of the English language
This is an overview list of dialects of the English language. Dialects are linguis
This is an overview list of dialects of the English language. Dialects are linguis
Dialects can be defined as "sub-forms of languages which are, in general, mutually comprehensible".English speakers from different countries and regions use a variety of different accents (systems
of pronunciation), as well as various localized words and grammatical
constructions; many different dialects can be identified based on these
factors. Dialects can be classified at broader or narrower levels:
within a broad national or regional dialect, various more localized
sub-dialects can be identified, and so on. The combination of
differences in pronunciation and use of local words may make some
English dialects almost unintelligible to speakers from other regions.
The major native dialects of English are often divided by linguists into three general categories: the British Isles dialects, those of North America, and those of Australasia. Dialects
can be associated not only with place, but also with particular social
groups. Within a given English-speaking country, there will often be a
form of the language considered to be Standard English,
the Standard Englishes of different countries differ, and each can
itself be considered a dialect. Standard English is often associated
with the more educated layers of society.
The English language as an official language
An official language is a language that is given a special legal status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction.
Typically a country's official language refers to the language used
within government (e.g., courts, parliament, administration). Since "the means of expression of a people cannot be changed by any law", the term "official language" does not typically refer to the language used by a people or country, but by its government.
Worldwide,
178 countries have at least one official language, and 101 of these
countries recognise more than one language. Many of the world's
constitutions mention one or more official and/or national languages. Some
countries use the official language designation to empower indigenous
groups by giving them access to the government in their native
languages. In countries that do not formally designate an official
language, a de facto national language usually evolves. English is
the most common official language, with recognized status in 51
countries. Arabic, French, and Spanish are also widely recognized.
An official language that is also an indigenous language is called endoglossic, one that is not indigenous is exoglossic. An instance is Nigeria which
has three endoglossic official languages. By this the country aims to
protect the indigenous languages although at the same time recognising
the English language as its lingua franca.
Ancient DNA reveals role of Near East and Egypt in cat domestication
These are several cats buried in a 6000-year-old pit in Hierakonpolis, Egypt.
DNA found at archaeological sites
reveals that the origins of our domestic cat are in the Near East and
ancient Egypt. Cats were domesticated by the first farmers some 10,000
years ago. They later spread across Europe and other parts of the world
via trade hub Egypt. The DNA analysis also revealed that most of these
ancient cats had stripes: spotted cats were uncommon until the Middle
Ages.
Five subspecies of the wildcat Felis silvestris are known
today. All skeletons look exactly alike and are indistinguishable from
that of our domestic cat. As a result, it's impossible to see with the
naked eye which of these subspecies was domesticated in a distant past.
Paleogeneticist Claudio Ottoni and his colleagues from KU Leuven
(University of Leuven) and the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural
Sciences set out to look for the answer in the genetic code. They used
the DNA from bones, teeth, skin, and hair of over 200 cats found at
archaeological sites in the Near East, Africa, and Europe. These remains
were between 100 and 9,000 years old.
The DNA analysis revealed that all domesticated cats descend from the African wildcat or Felis silvestris lybica, a wildcat subspecies found in North Africa and the Near East. Cats were domesticated some 10,000 years ago by the first farmers in the Near East. The first agricultural settlements probably attracted wildcats because they were rife with rodents. The farmers welcomed the wildcats as they kept the stocks of cereal grain free from vermin. Over time, man and animal grew closer, and selection based on behaviour eventually led to the domestication of the wildcat.
Migrating farmers took the domesticated cat with them. At a later stage, the cats also spread across Europe and elsewhere via trade hub Egypt. Used to fight vermin on Egyptian trade ships, the cats travelled to large parts of South West Asia, Africa, and Europe. Bones of cats with an Egyptian signature have even been found at Viking sites near the Baltic Sea.
"It's still unclear, however, whether the Egyptian domestic cat descends from cats imported from the Near East or whether a separate, second domestication took place in Egypt," says researcher Claudio Ottoni. "Further research will have to show." The scientists were also able to determine the coat pattern based on the DNA of the old cat bones and mummies. They found that the striped cat was much more common in ancient times. This is also illustrated by Egyptian murals: they always depict striped cats. The blotched pattern did not become common until the Middle Ages.
The DNA analysis revealed that all domesticated cats descend from the African wildcat or Felis silvestris lybica, a wildcat subspecies found in North Africa and the Near East. Cats were domesticated some 10,000 years ago by the first farmers in the Near East. The first agricultural settlements probably attracted wildcats because they were rife with rodents. The farmers welcomed the wildcats as they kept the stocks of cereal grain free from vermin. Over time, man and animal grew closer, and selection based on behaviour eventually led to the domestication of the wildcat.
Migrating farmers took the domesticated cat with them. At a later stage, the cats also spread across Europe and elsewhere via trade hub Egypt. Used to fight vermin on Egyptian trade ships, the cats travelled to large parts of South West Asia, Africa, and Europe. Bones of cats with an Egyptian signature have even been found at Viking sites near the Baltic Sea.
"It's still unclear, however, whether the Egyptian domestic cat descends from cats imported from the Near East or whether a separate, second domestication took place in Egypt," says researcher Claudio Ottoni. "Further research will have to show." The scientists were also able to determine the coat pattern based on the DNA of the old cat bones and mummies. They found that the striped cat was much more common in ancient times. This is also illustrated by Egyptian murals: they always depict striped cats. The blotched pattern did not become common until the Middle Ages.
Tracking turtles through time, study may resolve evolutionary debate
Turtles are more closely related to
birds and crocodilians than to lizards and snakes, according to a study
from Dartmouth, Yale and other institutions that examines one of the
most contentious questions in evolutionary biology.
The findings appear in the journal Evolution & Development. A PDF of the study is available on request.
The research team looked at how the major groups of living reptiles, which number more than 20,000 species, are interrelated. The relationships of some reptile groups are well understood -- birds are most closely related to crocodilians among living reptiles, while snakes, lizards and New Zealand's tuatara form a natural group. But the question of how turtles fit into this evolutionary picture has remained unclear. Are turtles more closely related to archosaurs (birds and crocodilians) or to lepidosaurs (lizards, snakes and tuatara)? Or are these other reptiles more closely related to each other than to turtles?
A growing number of studies examining DNA sequences have suggested a close evolutionary kinship between turtles and archosaurs, but those results were contradicted by anatomical studies and a recent study of small biomolecules called microRNAs. Because microRNAs are viewed by some as excellent evolutionary markers, the conflict between the microRNA and DNA results meant the turtle-archosaur link was viewed skeptically by many.
But the Dartmouth-led team's research suggests the earlier microRNA conclusions were erroneous, and instead indicates that microRNAs and DNA sequences yield a common signal -- that turtles share a more recent common ancestor with birds and crocodilians than with lizards and snakes.
The research team looked at how the major groups of living reptiles, which number more than 20,000 species, are interrelated. The relationships of some reptile groups are well understood -- birds are most closely related to crocodilians among living reptiles, while snakes, lizards and New Zealand's tuatara form a natural group. But the question of how turtles fit into this evolutionary picture has remained unclear. Are turtles more closely related to archosaurs (birds and crocodilians) or to lepidosaurs (lizards, snakes and tuatara)? Or are these other reptiles more closely related to each other than to turtles?
A growing number of studies examining DNA sequences have suggested a close evolutionary kinship between turtles and archosaurs, but those results were contradicted by anatomical studies and a recent study of small biomolecules called microRNAs. Because microRNAs are viewed by some as excellent evolutionary markers, the conflict between the microRNA and DNA results meant the turtle-archosaur link was viewed skeptically by many.
But the Dartmouth-led team's research suggests the earlier microRNA conclusions were erroneous, and instead indicates that microRNAs and DNA sequences yield a common signal -- that turtles share a more recent common ancestor with birds and crocodilians than with lizards and snakes.
Oldest lizard-like fossil yet to be found hints at scaly origins
Top: Vellberg jaw. Bottom: restoration image.
The fossilised remains of a reptile closely related to lizards are the oldest yet to be discovered.
Two new fossil jaws discovered in Vellberg, Germany provide the first
direct evidence that the ancestors of lizards, snakes and tuatara
(known collectively as lepidosaurs) were alive during the Middle
Triassic period -- around 240 million years ago.
The new fossil finds predate all other lepidosaur records by 12 million years. The findings are published in BMC Evolutionary Biology.
The international team of scientists who dated the fossil jaws have provided evidence that lepidosaurs first appeared after the end-Permian mass extinction event, a period when fauna began to recover and thrive in the more humid climate.
Lead author Dr Marc Jones, who conducted the research at UCL, explained: "The Middle Triassic represents a time when the world has recovered from the Permian mass extinction but is not yet dominated by dinosaurs. This is also when familiar groups, such as frogs and lizards, may have first appeared."
The small teeth and lightly built jaws suggest that the extinct animal preyed on small insects. The new fossils are most closely related to the tuatara, a lizard-like reptile.
Tuatara can be found on 35 islands lying off the coast of New Zealand and were recently reintroduced to the mainland. However, they are the sole survivors of a group that was once as globally widespread as lizards are today. Tuatara feed on beetles, spiders, crickets and small lizards, also enjoying the occasional sea bird.
Today, there are over 9,000 species of lizards, snakes and tuatara. Knowing when the common ancestor of this grouping first appeared is crucial for understanding the ecological context in which it first evolved as well as its subsequent diversification.
To establish the age of the fossil remains, biologists use a dating technique known as a "molecular clock." This method compares the amount of genetic divergence between living animals, caused by changes in their DNA sequences that have accumulated since they split from a common ancestor. These mutations occur fairly regularly, ticking along at a clock-like rate. However, for the clock to convert genetic differences into geological time, it has to be calibrated using one or more fossils of known relationship and time.
Molecular clocks have been used by biologists to answer questions as important as when the first modern humans emerged, and when humans and chimpanzees shared a common ancestor. The new fossil jaws can improve molecular dating estimates of when reptiles began to diversify into snakes, lizard and tuatara, and when the first modern lizards inhabited the earth. Previous estimates have varied over a range of 64 million years and the team are keen to help narrow this down.
"Some previous estimates based on molecular data suggested that lizards first evolved 290 million years ago," said second author Cajsa Lisa Anderson, University of Gothenburg. "To a palaeontologist this seems way too old and our revised molecular analysis agrees with the fossils."
Revised molecular dating in light of this new fossil find now suggests lizards began to diversify into most of the modern groups we recognise today, such as geckos and skinks, less than 150 million years ago in the Cretaceous period, following continental fragmentation.
The specimens were collected and initially identified by Professor Rainer Schoch from the Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde in Stuttgart, where the specimens are now registered.
Scientists anticipate that the Vellberg site will yield yet more fossil discoveries in the future, broadening our knowledge of the vertebrate fossil record.
Co-Author Professor Susan Evans, from the UCL Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, said: "The fossil record of small animals such as lizards and frogs is very patchy. Hopefully, this new fossil site in Germany will eventually give us a broader understanding of what was going on at this time."
The new fossil finds predate all other lepidosaur records by 12 million years. The findings are published in BMC Evolutionary Biology.
The international team of scientists who dated the fossil jaws have provided evidence that lepidosaurs first appeared after the end-Permian mass extinction event, a period when fauna began to recover and thrive in the more humid climate.
Lead author Dr Marc Jones, who conducted the research at UCL, explained: "The Middle Triassic represents a time when the world has recovered from the Permian mass extinction but is not yet dominated by dinosaurs. This is also when familiar groups, such as frogs and lizards, may have first appeared."
The small teeth and lightly built jaws suggest that the extinct animal preyed on small insects. The new fossils are most closely related to the tuatara, a lizard-like reptile.
Tuatara can be found on 35 islands lying off the coast of New Zealand and were recently reintroduced to the mainland. However, they are the sole survivors of a group that was once as globally widespread as lizards are today. Tuatara feed on beetles, spiders, crickets and small lizards, also enjoying the occasional sea bird.
Today, there are over 9,000 species of lizards, snakes and tuatara. Knowing when the common ancestor of this grouping first appeared is crucial for understanding the ecological context in which it first evolved as well as its subsequent diversification.
To establish the age of the fossil remains, biologists use a dating technique known as a "molecular clock." This method compares the amount of genetic divergence between living animals, caused by changes in their DNA sequences that have accumulated since they split from a common ancestor. These mutations occur fairly regularly, ticking along at a clock-like rate. However, for the clock to convert genetic differences into geological time, it has to be calibrated using one or more fossils of known relationship and time.
Molecular clocks have been used by biologists to answer questions as important as when the first modern humans emerged, and when humans and chimpanzees shared a common ancestor. The new fossil jaws can improve molecular dating estimates of when reptiles began to diversify into snakes, lizard and tuatara, and when the first modern lizards inhabited the earth. Previous estimates have varied over a range of 64 million years and the team are keen to help narrow this down.
"Some previous estimates based on molecular data suggested that lizards first evolved 290 million years ago," said second author Cajsa Lisa Anderson, University of Gothenburg. "To a palaeontologist this seems way too old and our revised molecular analysis agrees with the fossils."
Revised molecular dating in light of this new fossil find now suggests lizards began to diversify into most of the modern groups we recognise today, such as geckos and skinks, less than 150 million years ago in the Cretaceous period, following continental fragmentation.
The specimens were collected and initially identified by Professor Rainer Schoch from the Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde in Stuttgart, where the specimens are now registered.
Scientists anticipate that the Vellberg site will yield yet more fossil discoveries in the future, broadening our knowledge of the vertebrate fossil record.
Co-Author Professor Susan Evans, from the UCL Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, said: "The fossil record of small animals such as lizards and frogs is very patchy. Hopefully, this new fossil site in Germany will eventually give us a broader understanding of what was going on at this time."
The mere presence of your smartphone reduces brain power, study shows
The researchers found that
participants with their phones in another room significantly
outperformed those with their phones on the desk.
Your cognitive capacity is
significantly reduced when your smartphone is within reach -- even if
it's off. That's the takeaway finding from a new study from the McCombs
School of Business at The University of Texas at Austin.
McCombs Assistant Professor Adrian Ward and co-authors conducted
experiments with nearly 800 smartphone users in an attempt to measure,
for the first time, how well people can complete tasks when they have
their smartphones nearby even when they're not using them.
In one experiment, the researchers asked study participants to sit at a computer and take a series of tests that required full concentration in order to score well. The tests were geared to measure participants' available cognitive capacity -- that is, the brain's ability to hold and process data at any given time. Before beginning, participants were randomly instructed to place their smartphones either on the desk face down, in their pocket or personal bag, or in another room. All participants were instructed to turn their phones to silent.
The researchers found that participants with their phones in another room significantly outperformed those with their phones on the desk, and they also slightly outperformed those participants who had kept their phones in a pocket or bag.
The findings suggest that the mere presence of one's smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity and impairs cognitive functioning, even though people feel they're giving their full attention and focus to the task at hand. "We see a linear trend that suggests that as the smartphone becomes more noticeable, participants' available cognitive capacity decreases," Ward said. "Your conscious mind isn't thinking about your smartphone, but that process -- the process of requiring yourself to not think about something -- uses up some of your limited cognitive resources. It's a brain drain."
In another experiment, researchers looked at how a person's self-reported smartphone dependence -- or how strongly a person feels he or she needs to have a smartphone in order to get through a typical day -- affected cognitive capacity. Participants performed the same series of computer-based tests as the first group and were randomly assigned to keep their smartphones either in sight on the desk face up, in a pocket or bag, or in another room. In this experiment, some participants were also instructed to turn off their phones.
The researchers found that participants who were the most dependent on their smartphones performed worse compared with their less-dependent peers, but only when they kept their smartphones on the desk or in their pocket or bag.
Ward and his colleagues also found that it didn't matter whether a person's smartphone was turned on or off, or whether it was lying face up or face down on a desk. Having a smartphone within sight or within easy reach reduces a person's ability to focus and perform tasks because part of their brain is actively working to not pick up or use the phone.
"It's not that participants were distracted because they were getting notifications on their phones," said Ward. "The mere presence of their smartphone was enough to reduce their cognitive capacity."
In one experiment, the researchers asked study participants to sit at a computer and take a series of tests that required full concentration in order to score well. The tests were geared to measure participants' available cognitive capacity -- that is, the brain's ability to hold and process data at any given time. Before beginning, participants were randomly instructed to place their smartphones either on the desk face down, in their pocket or personal bag, or in another room. All participants were instructed to turn their phones to silent.
The researchers found that participants with their phones in another room significantly outperformed those with their phones on the desk, and they also slightly outperformed those participants who had kept their phones in a pocket or bag.
The findings suggest that the mere presence of one's smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity and impairs cognitive functioning, even though people feel they're giving their full attention and focus to the task at hand. "We see a linear trend that suggests that as the smartphone becomes more noticeable, participants' available cognitive capacity decreases," Ward said. "Your conscious mind isn't thinking about your smartphone, but that process -- the process of requiring yourself to not think about something -- uses up some of your limited cognitive resources. It's a brain drain."
In another experiment, researchers looked at how a person's self-reported smartphone dependence -- or how strongly a person feels he or she needs to have a smartphone in order to get through a typical day -- affected cognitive capacity. Participants performed the same series of computer-based tests as the first group and were randomly assigned to keep their smartphones either in sight on the desk face up, in a pocket or bag, or in another room. In this experiment, some participants were also instructed to turn off their phones.
The researchers found that participants who were the most dependent on their smartphones performed worse compared with their less-dependent peers, but only when they kept their smartphones on the desk or in their pocket or bag.
Ward and his colleagues also found that it didn't matter whether a person's smartphone was turned on or off, or whether it was lying face up or face down on a desk. Having a smartphone within sight or within easy reach reduces a person's ability to focus and perform tasks because part of their brain is actively working to not pick up or use the phone.
"It's not that participants were distracted because they were getting notifications on their phones," said Ward. "The mere presence of their smartphone was enough to reduce their cognitive capacity."
Ancient DNA reveals role of Near East and Egypt in cat domestication
These are several cats buried in a 6000-year-old pit in Hierakonpolis, Egypt.
DNA found at archaeological sites
reveals that the origins of our domestic cat are in the Near East and
ancient Egypt. Cats were domesticated by the first farmers some 10,000
years ago. They later spread across Europe and other parts of the world
via trade hub Egypt. The DNA analysis also revealed that most of these
ancient cats had stripes: spotted cats were uncommon until the Middle
Ages.
Five subspecies of the wildcat Felis silvestris are known
today. All skeletons look exactly alike and are indistinguishable from
that of our domestic cat. As a result, it's impossible to see with the
naked eye which of these subspecies was domesticated in a distant past.
Paleogeneticist Claudio Ottoni and his colleagues from KU Leuven
(University of Leuven) and the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural
Sciences set out to look for the answer in the genetic code. They used
the DNA from bones, teeth, skin, and hair of over 200 cats found at
archaeological sites in the Near East, Africa, and Europe. These remains
were between 100 and 9,000 years old.
The DNA analysis revealed that all domesticated cats descend from the African wildcat or Felis silvestris lybica, a wildcat subspecies found in North Africa and the Near East. Cats were domesticated some 10,000 years ago by the first farmers in the Near East. The first agricultural settlements probably attracted wildcats because they were rife with rodents. The farmers welcomed the wildcats as they kept the stocks of cereal grain free from vermin. Over time, man and animal grew closer, and selection based on behaviour eventually led to the domestication of the wildcat.
Migrating farmers took the domesticated cat with them. At a later stage, the cats also spread across Europe and elsewhere via trade hub Egypt. Used to fight vermin on Egyptian trade ships, the cats travelled to large parts of South West Asia, Africa, and Europe. Bones of cats with an Egyptian signature have even been found at Viking sites near the Baltic Sea.
"It's still unclear, however, whether the Egyptian domestic cat descends from cats imported from the Near East or whether a separate, second domestication took place in Egypt," says researcher Claudio Ottoni. "Further research will have to show." The scientists were also able to determine the coat pattern based on the DNA of the old cat bones and mummies. They found that the striped cat was much more common in ancient times. This is also illustrated by Egyptian murals: they always depict striped cats. The blotched pattern did not become common until the Middle Ages.
The DNA analysis revealed that all domesticated cats descend from the African wildcat or Felis silvestris lybica, a wildcat subspecies found in North Africa and the Near East. Cats were domesticated some 10,000 years ago by the first farmers in the Near East. The first agricultural settlements probably attracted wildcats because they were rife with rodents. The farmers welcomed the wildcats as they kept the stocks of cereal grain free from vermin. Over time, man and animal grew closer, and selection based on behaviour eventually led to the domestication of the wildcat.
Migrating farmers took the domesticated cat with them. At a later stage, the cats also spread across Europe and elsewhere via trade hub Egypt. Used to fight vermin on Egyptian trade ships, the cats travelled to large parts of South West Asia, Africa, and Europe. Bones of cats with an Egyptian signature have even been found at Viking sites near the Baltic Sea.
"It's still unclear, however, whether the Egyptian domestic cat descends from cats imported from the Near East or whether a separate, second domestication took place in Egypt," says researcher Claudio Ottoni. "Further research will have to show." The scientists were also able to determine the coat pattern based on the DNA of the old cat bones and mummies. They found that the striped cat was much more common in ancient times. This is also illustrated by Egyptian murals: they always depict striped cats. The blotched pattern did not become common until the Middle Ages.
Ancient Swiss reptile shows its bizarre scale armor for the first time.
Reconstruction of Eusaurosphargis dalsassoi.
Credit: Beat Scheffold, Paleontological Institute and Museum, University of Zurich
Grisons, 241 million years ago --
Instead of amidst high mountains, a small reptile suns itself on an
island beach in a warm shallow sea, where many fish and marine reptiles
frolic. This is the story told by an excellently preserved new discovery
of the reptile Eusaurosphargis dalsassoi studied by paleontologists from the University of Zurich.
About 20 centimeters in length, the Swiss reptile was small and
juvenile, but its skin was already strongly armored with variously
formed smooth, jagged or even thorny osteoderms. Its skeleton indicates a
life on land, even though the animal was found together with fish and
marine reptiles in the 241 million year old calcareous deposits of the
Prosanto Formation near Ducanfurgga at an altitude of 2,740 meters south
of Davos in the canton Grisons, Switzerland. The Swiss-British team of
researchers led by Torsten Scheyer, paleontologist at the University of
Zurich, and James Neenan from the Oxford University Museum of Natural
History therefore assumes that it was washed off a nearby island into
the sea basin and became embedded in the finely layered marine sediments
after death.Skeleton and appearance reconstructed
14 years ago, the species Eusaurosphargis dalsassoi was described using a partially preserved, completely disarticulated sample from the vicinity of the Swiss-Italian UNESCO World Heritage Site Monte San Giorgio. The new find from the Grisons Mountains, on the other hand, is very well-preserved, allowing researchers to reconstruct the skeleton and outward appearance of the animal for the first time.
In the process, they discovered something astonishing: Externally, Eusaurosphargis dalsassoi looks very similar to girdled lizards (Cordylidae), a group of small, scaled reptiles (Lepidosauria) that usually live in the dry regions of southern Africa. Some of the more strongly armored girdled lizard species could have served as the basis of mythical dragon legends due to their appearance. "This is a case of convergent development as the extinct species is not closely related to today's African lizards" , Scheyer explains.
Related to Helveticosaurus
An exact examination of the phylogenetic relationships rather confirms that its closest relatives are marine reptiles such as ichthyosaurs (Ichthyosauria or "fish lizards"), sauropterygians (Sauropterygia "lizard flippers") or even Helveticosaurus, a marine reptile that is unique to Switzerland, all of which have been found at Monte San Giorgio. The skeleton of Eusaurosphargis, however, shows neither a streamlined body structure, nor arms and legs that have transformed into flippers, as well as no tail fin, which would indicate a life at sea.
Technology which makes electricity from urine also kills pathogens.
Enterobacteriaceae: Large family
of Gram-negative bacteria that includes many of the more familiar
pathogens, such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli.
A scientific breakthrough has taken an
emerging biotechnology a step closer to being used to treat wastewater
in the Developing World.
Researchers at the University of the West of England (UWE Bristol)
(Ieropoulos & Greenman) have discovered that technology they have
developed which has already been proven to generate electricity through
the process of cleaning organic waste, such as urine, also kills
bacteria harmful to humans.
Experts have shown that a special process they have developed in which wastewater flows through a series of cells filled with electroactive microbes can be used to attack and destroy a pathogen -- the potentially deadly Salmonella.
It is envisaged that the microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology could one day be used in the Developing World in areas lacking sanitation and installed in homes in the Developed World to help clean waste before it flows into the municipal sewerage network, reducing the burden on water companies to treat effluent.
Professor Ioannis Ieropoulos, who is leading the research, said it was necessary to establish the technology could tackle pathogens in order for it to be considered for use in the Developing World.
The findings of the research have been published in leading scientific journal PLOS ONE. Professor Ieropoulos, Director of the Bristol BioEnergy Centre, based in the Bristol Robotics Laboratory at UWE Bristol, said it was the first time globally it had been reported that pathogens could be destroyed using this method.
He said: "We were really excited with the results -- it shows we have a stable biological system in which we can treat waste, generate electricity and stop harmful organisms making it through to the sewerage network."
It had already been established that the MFC technology created by Dr Ieropoulos' team could successfully clean organic waste, including urine, to the extent that it could be safely released into the environment. Through the same process, electricity is generated -- enough to charge a mobile phone or power lighting in earlier trials.
In the unique system, being developed with funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the organic content of the urine is consumed by microbes inside the fuel cells, breaking it down and creating energy.
For the pathogen experiment, Salmonella enteritidis was added to urine flowing through the system, then checked at the end of the process to identify if bacteria numbers had been reduced. Results revealed pathogen numbers had dropped significantly, beyond minimum requirements used by the sanitation sector.
Other pathogens, including viruses, are now being tested and there are plans for experiments which will establish if the MFC system can eliminate pathogens completely.
John Greenman, Emeritus Professor of Microbiology, said: "The wonderful outcome in this study was that tests showed a reduction in the number of pathogens beyond the minimum expectations in the sanitation world.
"We have reduced the number of pathogenic organisms significantly but we haven't shown we can bring them down to zero -- we will continue the work to test if we can completely eliminate them."
Professor Ieropoulos said his system could be beneficial to the wastewater industry because MFC systems fitted in homes could result in wastewater being cleaner when it reaches the sewerage system.
He said: "Water companies are under pressure to improve treatment and produce cleaner and cleaner water at the end of the process. This means costs are rising, energy consumption levels are high and chemicals that are not good for the environment are being used."
Experts have shown that a special process they have developed in which wastewater flows through a series of cells filled with electroactive microbes can be used to attack and destroy a pathogen -- the potentially deadly Salmonella.
It is envisaged that the microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology could one day be used in the Developing World in areas lacking sanitation and installed in homes in the Developed World to help clean waste before it flows into the municipal sewerage network, reducing the burden on water companies to treat effluent.
Professor Ioannis Ieropoulos, who is leading the research, said it was necessary to establish the technology could tackle pathogens in order for it to be considered for use in the Developing World.
The findings of the research have been published in leading scientific journal PLOS ONE. Professor Ieropoulos, Director of the Bristol BioEnergy Centre, based in the Bristol Robotics Laboratory at UWE Bristol, said it was the first time globally it had been reported that pathogens could be destroyed using this method.
He said: "We were really excited with the results -- it shows we have a stable biological system in which we can treat waste, generate electricity and stop harmful organisms making it through to the sewerage network."
It had already been established that the MFC technology created by Dr Ieropoulos' team could successfully clean organic waste, including urine, to the extent that it could be safely released into the environment. Through the same process, electricity is generated -- enough to charge a mobile phone or power lighting in earlier trials.
In the unique system, being developed with funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the organic content of the urine is consumed by microbes inside the fuel cells, breaking it down and creating energy.
For the pathogen experiment, Salmonella enteritidis was added to urine flowing through the system, then checked at the end of the process to identify if bacteria numbers had been reduced. Results revealed pathogen numbers had dropped significantly, beyond minimum requirements used by the sanitation sector.
Other pathogens, including viruses, are now being tested and there are plans for experiments which will establish if the MFC system can eliminate pathogens completely.
John Greenman, Emeritus Professor of Microbiology, said: "The wonderful outcome in this study was that tests showed a reduction in the number of pathogens beyond the minimum expectations in the sanitation world.
"We have reduced the number of pathogenic organisms significantly but we haven't shown we can bring them down to zero -- we will continue the work to test if we can completely eliminate them."
Professor Ieropoulos said his system could be beneficial to the wastewater industry because MFC systems fitted in homes could result in wastewater being cleaner when it reaches the sewerage system.
He said: "Water companies are under pressure to improve treatment and produce cleaner and cleaner water at the end of the process. This means costs are rising, energy consumption levels are high and chemicals that are not good for the environment are being used."
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)